Explainer Series: Sand Mining:The Silent Killer
Introduction
“The New Gold”. One would think this refers to Oil but according to many, this title belongs to Sand, which has become an increasingly valuable and essential commodity in today’s world. Nearly everything we see around us utilizes sand in some form or the other, be it in our houses, roads, concrete, glass, water filtration systems, gas extraction and even our cellphones. While sand is mostly used in concrete, it also makes up 90% of the asphalt on highways. In fact, after water, sand is the second most consumed natural resource in the world and its usage and demand are only expected to grow further, to an estimated 82 billion metric tons of sand being extracted by 2060 as the global population continues to rise, cities continue to expand, and countries develop.
But one may ask, how is this a problem when the world has gallons of sand dumped in deserts, the ocean, and river floors as well? And if it is such a huge problem why not put a complete ban on sand mining? Before answering these questions it’s imperative to get familiarized with Sand Mining itself.
What is Sand Mining?
Sand, according to Section 3 (e) of the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act), is considered to be a minor mineral (building stones, gravel, ordinary clay, ordinary sand other than sand used for prescribed purposes, and any other mineral which the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, declare to be a minor mineral) in India. Sand mining, simply put, refers to the deliberate removal of a layer of sand and gravel from the earth’s surface. This extraction takes place using open pits from various sources including but not limited to the foreshores of rivers, lakes, and the ocean bed. The method of extraction used usually is determined by the location of the sand, say along the coastline, Miners employ suction pumps or dredging boats whereas sand on land and along rivers is excavated with backhoes, shovels, or bare hands.
The Ideal kind of Sand
Some of the major types of sand include those from deserts, land pits, seas, and riverbeds. However, not all sand is the same nor is suitable for all uses. For instance, Desert Sand isn’t fit for construction as its grains are too small, smooth, and rounded due to wind-weathering and thus are unfit for binding in concrete. On the other hand, Sea or Marine Sand also consists of similar properties due to being constantly tossed around by ocean currents and has to be washed off of salt, which would corrode metal reinforcement structures that are quintessential to making the concrete fit for use. However, it can be used in Land Reclamation Projects, such as the ones in Singapore and China. Therefore, rivers and lakes automatically become the natural resort for Sand Mining, as it has a wide variety of particle sizes and mineral composition especially since it contains the ideal kind of Sand which is perfectly shaped, sized and best for construction work. Besides, this kind of sand also contains silica which is an important component in glass manufacturing and fracking.
Thus, while sand in the world may be in abundance within various sources, it’s the right type of sand that matters and is the one being depleted in large numbers, which is proving to be dangerous. Simultaneously though, sand is indeed an essential resource utilized in various industries from infrastructure to gas fracking, industrial production of electronics, glass production etc., and thus sand mining contributes to the creation of jobs, and provides economic growth and benefits especially for the countries producing and importing said sand, looking at the skyrocketing demand reaching nearly 50 billion tonnes a year in 2019 (latest UNEP report). Asian countries like India, China, and Cambodia along with Australia, and the United States are major sand mining and gravel-producing hotspots, consequently reaping the most benefits.
Major Sind Mining Hotspots (Image Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/6/3356)
Hence, while an outright worldwide ban on sand mining would be in Nature’s best interest it might just not be a viable option especially since the demand for sand is enormous and ever-growing.
However, this does not negate the gravity of the problem because in order to meet this enormous demand for sand, far more sand is excavated indiscriminately at a pace that is much greater than the capacity of nature to replace it, causing drastic and irreversible damage. Furthermore, it is often done without proper scientific methodology. Further, a lack of government scrutiny, a dearth of appropriate legislation, and corruption have led to widespread illegal mining, says Pascal Peduzzi a UNEP Researcher. Despite the abrasive nature of the activity, its pervasiveness, and its huge environmental impact (which will subsequently be discussed), issues relating to the maintenance of mining laws are all delegated to local authorities. Besides, there exist no global treaties that govern the extraction, use, or trade of sand. Worse still, nothing that even suggests or promotes good practices. All of which is very concerning and hugely damaging to the prospect of conserving sand by ensuring its regulated mining.
River Sand Mining
The mineralogical composition, grain size, and durability along with the quantity and quality of the sediments found in the river soil are largely dependent on the parent material, geomorphology of the landscape, and soil type. The above is a result of a threefold process including sediment supply, transport, and deposition. However, much like most natural resources, these sediments that make sand such a precious resource are also non-renewable and require a large time frame to replenish.
Sand is usually mined neither extremely upstream nor downstream but rather at a sweet spot in between, where an optimal mix of sand and gravel is found along with the ideal grain size because the principle followed is that finer particles (sand) are found more abundantly downstream whereas coarse particles (gravel), upstream. Sand is usually extracted via buckets on conveyor belts attached to floating platforms, while these methods are considered cheap, they radically alter the river flow, decrease the water tables, lead to the drying up of tributaries, and destroy fisheries and wetlands.
The Consequences
The mining of sand in or near riverbeds has adverse effects on the physical attributes of the river such as velocity, temperature, opacity, bed elevation, sediment transport capacity etc. As a result, disturbances can be observed in the biota present in and around the river along with disruptions to the flow and path of the river.
The interface between the river and land is termed as the riparian habitat, this region is usually lush with vegetation which serves a twofold purpose. Primarily it provides nutrient inputs into the stream which sustains other ecosystems present inside the river and secondly, it also stops run-off pollutants from entering the stream, thus maintaining its purity. A major problem with excess or imprecise sand mining is the erosion or degradation of these valuable regions. Another form of degradation that occurs is known as bed degradation. This is when the bed of the river erodes to a new lower level at a faster rate than what is considered to be normal. Not only does bed degradation cause a change in the morphology of the river leading to changes in the habitats of the river biota, but it also leads to structural damage of man-made bridges as well as other support structures and loss of property. Further, it can cause the “lowering of groundwater table in the flood plain as well as the river water level takes place because of extraction and draining out of excessive groundwater from the adjacent areas. So, if a floodplain aquifer drains to the stream, groundwater levels can be lowered as a result of bed degradation.” Further, the depletion of gravel can also expose the river to harmful underlying substances which could prove harmful and destructive to various ecosystems that are dependent on the river.
While the decrease in river levels does lead to a decrease in flood heights thus reducing the risk to nearby colonies, the depletion of the river bed also causes structural damage to various engineering works. Further, indiscrete mining activities lead to increased concentration of suspended sediment in the river which in turn causes siltation of water resources projects. The siltation of rivers also causes disturbances in the migration patterns of birds and fish which once again adversely affects the biotic systems thriving in our rivers.
Looking outside the obvious harms of sand mining to nature, the occupation itself is a very hazardous one. “People have suffered directly from illegal activity as well. In India, 193 people died in accidents related to sand mining operations or sites in 2019-2020, according to a January report by the rights group South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and People. About half of those deaths occurred from drowning in mining pits, including 76 young children and teenagers who entered the river to have a bath, unaware of the deep pits in the riverbed. According to several allegations in local media, many miners are working illegally in over 70 nations, taking diminishing supplies of river and coastal sand, frequently with the assistance of complicit governments. Naturally, harm to rivers and ecosystems as well as acts of violence follow in their wake.
The Indian Outlook
Sand Mining in India is governed by the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act). Following the system of Federalism, individual States have jurisdiction over activities related to licensing, environmental impact assessments, concession rules and other regulations under Section 15 of the MMDR Act, 1957. Besides, gauging the humungous demand for sand along with the detrimental consequences caused to the environment, the Government introduced certain regulations relating to Sustainability like The Sand Mining Management Guidelines 2016 and Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining, 2020. Along with mining being unlawful without permits under Section 4 of the MMDR Act 1957 as well as Bans being put to regulate indiscriminate and illegal, unscientific sand. E.g., the Sone River, Bihar: The golden sand of the Sone is considered to be of the highest quality and is always in great demand, so much so that sand mining has been prohibited in Bihar between July 1 and September 30 since 2017. This has caused a critical shortage of materials required for construction, which consequently raised the price of sand and encouraged unlawful mining. Further, in the case of Pampa River, Kerala, due to continuous Sand Mining, water flow slowly became blocked and the 15-20 feet thick carpet on the riverbed all nearly vanished causing Several areas of the river to cave in due to a fall in the riverbed and the loss of sand from beneath the topsoil at the river embankment.
Glimpses of Sand Mining at Sone River
Additionally, the Supreme Court establishes restrictions on the amount of sand that may be mined and clearly forbids mining without the proper authorization from the required authorities. In the State of Tamil Nadu v. Hind Stone, the Supreme Court of India banned the mining of beach sand, including monazite, rutile, zircon, and ilmenite, in the southern state of Tamil Nadu. While in Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v. Union of India (1996) which was related to sand mining in the riverbeds of the Yamuna and Ganga rivers. Here, the Court directed the state governments to take measures to prevent illegal mining and to ensure that the mining is carried out in a sustainable manner.
However, on the ground, little has changed despite these policy implementations, bans and even Supreme Court Judgements to regulate sand mining and track illegality. Locally, most enforcement efforts are aimed at artisanal miners rather than the major corporate groupings that profit and successful indictments are rare.
In the end, it will be crucial to stress on conservation and recycling of construction materials, along with the economical use of riverine sand, and reservoir dredging given the enormous demand for sand and construction materials in India. Sand transportation beyond administrative lines should be prohibited, and local populations should be empowered and trained in sustainable resource management.
What Now?
As the situation stands, there is a prompt need for reinforcement via developing an international as well as national, and state-level framework for sustainable sand mining all in sync with each other. The Sand Mining Management Guidelines 2016 are examples of such policy frameworks from India, however, they too require increased strictness and responsibility to strengthen them further. Frameworks of this kind need to promulgate and incorporate international regulations and enforcement mechanisms, such as a “sand licensing system, monitoring systems, and clean technology that decrease environmental impact.” However, to support this Multi-Layered System would require considerable funding from governments all around the world as well as major public and private entities in the mining world.
Some Recommendations by UNEP to Avert a Sand Crisis
(Image Source: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/sand-and-sustainability-10-strategic-recommendations-avert-crisis)
A few other steps would include educating the public about the detrimental consequences of sand mining consequently to increase awareness of its associated environmental problems as well. Along with a push to reduce the usage of natural sand by replacing it with substitution material such as "crushed rock" which is produced by blasting into rock beds and then grinding the debris into aggregates appropriate for cement, something which is being taken up by USA and China. However, most mining businesses lack the funds to invest in the necessary apparatus and power to run it. Steps need to be taken to enable such alternatives at a reasonable price, along with making strides to implement a robust public policy to tackle this issue. However, WWF’s Koehnken says that “rivers can sustain sand extraction.” But in order to do so, it should be mined “within the natural variability of the sediment load of the system.”. The innumerous tales of heedless sand mining will continue to pour in until a balance is struck between the mining rate and replenishment rate, making regulation the need of the hour.
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