Explainer Series: Montreal Protocol
The ozone (O3) is the atmospheric layer that protects the Earth and its life from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun. This ozone layer has been prone to depletion, primarily caused by ozone depleting substances (ODS), and there was an immediate need to draw the world’s attention towards it in the 1970s. Essentially, these substances by contributing to the depletion of the ozone, act as a catalyst in global warming and climate change because most of these substances are potent green-house gases, 14,000 times stronger than carbon di oxide.
These ODS were primarily used in the manufacturing of refrigerators, foams and aerosol sprays and the supply chain was congested with them in the 1950s and 60s. To offset this growth and break the chain of causation in the damage to the ozone layer, the Montreal Protocol came into existence and identified close to 100 such man-made ODS. Under the treaty, each member was bestowed with a specific duty towards gradually phasing out the usage of ODS.
Historical background
Some of the prior warnings on the threats to the ozone layer came from the Nobel laureates Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina in 1974 in their publication “Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorine atom catalysed destruction of ozone”. Post their findings; there was a universal demand to bring forth a legislation to regulate the usage of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Subsequent studies also revealed that the depletion of the ozone layer could be fatal to human life. The absence of the ozone layer causes the UV radiation levels on the Earth’s surface. It threw light on how the increased levels of UV radiations could cause skin cancer, eye cataracts and immune deficiency disorders. The UV rays also impacted the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem disrupting the food chain, growth and biochemical cycles. Emanating in this backdrop was one of the earliest global conventions on environmental protection – the Montreal Protocol (1987).
The Montreal Protocol falls under the ambit of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985. The Vienna Convention initiated the academic discussions and scientific discoveries in the province of human activities and their impact on the stratosphere. Ensuing the Convention, the Protocol came into force.
Purpose
The Montreal Protocol, the only treaty to have been ratified by all the 198 United Nations member countries, is a global environment treaty that aims to gradually eliminate substances that lead to the depletion of the ozone layer. Many chemical substances including, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), have the potential to break down the ozone layer (Figure 1).
Figure 1: How do CFCs react with the ozone layer?
One the first nations to identify the threat to the ozone layer was the Unites States of America which was influenced mainly by Rowland and Molina’s study. Considering the fact that the US in the recent past have negated environmental issues, especially climate change, it is indeed laudable that it was the US that led the movement against the depletion of the ozone layer in the latter half of the 20th century. In 1977, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) addressed the first international meeting on ODS at Washington DC. Even though there were many disagreements to the theory of the ozone depletion among the scientific fraternity in the US, the erstwhile President Ronald Reagan identified it as a pertinent issue taking into account the adverse effects of ozone depletion. Under President Reagan’s directions, several ozone protection policy regulations had begun. The US industry started working towards alternatives for CFCs and initiated several restrictions, especially the aerosol ban. The ban alone cost the US economy over USD 3 billion. It is indeed ironic that a President who remarked trees caused pollution ended up aggressively seeking the ban of products that were made of ODS. During President Reagan’s tenure, ambient levels of airborne lead fell by 85 percent among other air pollutants.
But it is worth raising the question why a President who was ignorant about environment during the initial days of his tenure, ended up focussing on environmental problems. Well, it has been brought to public attention that President Reagan had a cancerous growth in his nose which was removed three months post a study on ozone layer. This could have eventually led President Reagan to address the issue on ozone layer protection.
With this progress in the US on one hand, the European countries on the other were still working on the uncertainties that revolved around the ozone layer and the impact of CFCs on them. Likewise, the Japanese joined the negotiations only in 1986 because certain compounds of CFCs were used in the electronic industry, a vital source of income for the Japanese economy.
In light of this, more studies were being conducted across the world. In 1986, a report was submitted by the Environmental Protection Agency of the US. It projected “over five million skin cancer deaths by 2165, together with over twenty-five million cataract cases by that year— figures that would be cut to 200,000 and two million, respectively, by a 50% CFC reduction.” The publication also estimated the net benefits of the Montreal Protocol to the US to be 3,554 billion US dollars (as of 1985). These economic benefits could have also contributed to the US proactively seeking the implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
Several companies were afraid that lawsuits would be issued against them on the grounds that their products caused lung and skincare diseases. This was a consequent reaction to the lawsuits that were being filed against cigarette companies for causing lung diseases including cancer during the period. Fearing lawsuits on similar grounds, it persuaded the American industries to look for alternatives. Additionally, scientist Susan Solomon’s expeditions in Antarctica reiterated the threats of ODS in 1986 and ‘87. Thus, the push from the US played a significant role in executing the Montreal Protocol.
Citizen Activism
Both before and post the Montreal Protocol, citizen activism played an active role in environmental policy making. April 22, 1970, marks the day when 200 million US citizens demonstrated on streets and parks across the country to voice out against corporations and organisations that harmed the Earth. It was a milestone in the drive towards environmental protection, which led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency followed by passing of laws including the Clean Air Act, 1970 in the US.
Similarly, when the US decided to build supersonic transport planes (SSTs) during the same period, environmentalists refused to fund the project for the sole reason that SSTs flown into the stratosphere can damage the ozone layer. Consumers of the day as a mark of protest, even before the government introduced the ban in 1978, had boycotted the spray cans. These actions culminated and reflected the mission of the Montreal Protocol.
Targets and Funding
The protocol came into effect on 1st January 1989. Article 2 of the Protocol provides for the Control Measures. Sub-clauses A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I and J of Article 2 provides for the substances to be controlled including CFCs, halons, Other fully halogenated CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, HCFCs, hydrobromofluorocarbons, methyl bromide, bromochloromethane and HFCs, respectively. Article 3 includes the calculation of the control levels expressed in CO2equivalents, of production, consumption, imports, exports and emissions levels. Other provisions of the Protocol include Control of trade with non-Parties (Article 4), Special situation of developing countries (Article 5), Reporting of data (Article 7), Non-compliance (Article 8) and Technical assistance (Article 10).
The targets set by the Protocol are of several stages. The first target was to get rid of CFCs. The initial agreements stipulated goals to minimise the production and consumption of CFCs by 80 percent of 1986 levels by 1994 and halons by 50 percent of 1986 levels by 1999. The developing countries achieved it by 1995 while the developing countries by 2010. Figure 3 captures the reduction schedule of production and consumption of CFCs by developed countries (Non-Article 5 countries represented by the green line) and developing countries (Article 5 countries represented by the blue line).
Figure 3: CFCs production and consumption reduction schedule
Furthermore, Article 11 of the Protocol stipulates for the parties to meet at regular intervals. Ever since the first meeting of the Protocol came into effect, the members meet every year and set their goals towards gradually phasing out a particular percentage of ODS from the system. Some of the functions of the meetings would be to review the implementation of the Protocol and decide on any alterations to be made in the targets. These meetings also paved for amendments to the original Protocol. The amendments to the Protocol are – London Amendment (1990), Copenhagen Amendment (1992), Montreal Amendment (1997), Beijing Amendment (1999) and Kigali Amendment (2016). The amendments have given the Protocol flexibility to evolve and address contemporary environmental concerns.
The Kigali amendment of the Protocol came into force on 1st January 2019. The aim of the amendment is to reduce the consumption of HFC by 80 percent by 2047 and further avoid up to 0.5-degree Celsius rise in global temperature by the end of the 21st century.
To smoothen the transition towards ozone-friendly production and consumption methods, in 1991, the Protocol established a Multilateral Fund (Article 3.6) for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol to provide technical and monetary aid to developing countries. Ever since it came into being, it has funded over USD 3.9 billion in more than 8,600 projects worldwide.
One of the ongoing targets among developed and developing countries is phasing out of hydrofluorocarbons (HCFs) by 2036 and 2045, respectively. Thus, all developing and developed countries, have equal and diversified commitments that are “binding, time-targeted and measurable” in nature.
India’s progress report
India has been a part of the Montreal Protocol since 1992 and has “phased out the use of chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride, halons, methyl bromide and methyl chloroform for controlled uses”. India ratified the Kigali amendment in August 2021. In line with the same, India aims to pass a legislation by amending the existing laws by 2024 in consultation with industry experts to bring about a national strategy to facilitate the reduction of HFCs by 2047.
Ministry of Environment has also taken other initiatives to implement the goals of the Montreal Protocol. As of September 2021, Ashwini Choubey, Union Minister of Environment has released the “action plan for implementing recommendations of the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) for thematic area space cooling in buildings” in addition to a report on India’s cold chain sector to advocate refrigerants made of non-ozone depleting substances with low-global warming potential. These targets strengthen the goals of the Montreal Protocol in addressing the depletion of the ozone layer and the consequential rise in earth’s surface temperature.
The way-forward
The success of the Montreal Protocol is evident from its long-standing impact in the field of environmental protection. It has lived through three decades, and it continues in its purpose with the Sustainable Development Goals of 2030. Not only has it paved the way for the protection of the ozone layer, but the Protocol has also indirectly helped in fighting global warming and climate crisis.
The Protocol stands as a success against the Kyoto Protocol and Pairs Agreement. The Kyoto Protocol has still not been ratified by several counties including the United States, while the Paris Agreement is yet to be ratified by a few middle eastern countries. In fact, the United States ratified the Paris Agreement only in 2021. On the contrary, the Montreal Protocol has been ratified by all the member nations and each country has been working towards the same ever since it came into force, including India. Model studies also estimate that the protocol will drastically reduce the number of skin cancers and eye cataracts. In a recent study published on October 6, 2021, the Protocol is expected to prevent 443 million cases of skin diseases in the US alone. The UNEP estimates that at the global front 2 million cases of skin cancer can be prevented annually by 2030.
With the Protocol, it is also expected that the ozone layer will replenish by the middle of the 21st century. The coronavirus pandemic has also catalysed the process. With the lockdown across the world, man-made emissions into the atmosphere were halted, including ODS. Consequently, a small hole spotted in the ozone above Antarctica in 1982 closed last year. These developments and expectations are proof that the Montreal Protocol is a commendable environmental initiative for a sustainable future.
Image source: turkmenportal.com
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